An aphrodisiac is a substance designed to create and prolong arousal - either in yourself or in someone you desire. Humans have been using aphrodisiacs for thousands of years, in an attempt to enhance their love life, or to lure an unsuspecting lover. Even today, interest in the idea of a "love potion" remains strong, hence the almost legendary status of Viagra, and the popularity of some herbal extracts.

The problem is, of course, that most traditional aphrodisiacs don't really work, at least not according to modern scientific theory. The US Food and Drug Administration asserts that all "over the counter" aphrodisiacs are based on folklore and that none have been proven to work. There are, however, a number of foods, drinks and herbs that may well have the desired effect. Results may vary from person to person, and care should be taken with some of these substances.

TRADITIONAL (And Generally Useless) APHRODISIACS
SPANISH FLY
This is one of the most well known aphrodisiacs, and perhaps one of the most dangerous. Spanish Fly is actually the dried and powdered bodies of South American cantharides beetles, also known as "blister beetles" because of the effect they can have on the human skin. The active ingredient, cantharidin, is highly toxic when ingested, and even small doses can result in death. The supposed aphrodisiac effect is a result of the urinary tract becoming inflamed after the poison has passed through the kidneys, and this may result in increased blood flow and sensitivity in the pelvic area. The penis may also become painfully and constantly erect. One of the better known cases of the use of Spanish Fly occurred in 1772 when the notorious Marquis de Sade gave the poison to a number of prostitutes, all of whom fell ill. The Marquis was later tried for poisoning.

RHINOCEROUS HORN AND TIGER PENIS
Powdered rhinoceros horn is considered to be effective in prolonging erection in Eastern Asian countries (it's also seen to be something of a cure-all). The horn is made of keratin and skin as opposed to actual bone, and has no true aphrodisiac qualities whatsoever. Indeed, the African tribes who originally hunted the rhinoceros to improve their sex lives were after its penis rather than the horn. Unfortunately the demand for rhino horn means these magnificent beasts have been hunted almost to extinction.

Similarly, various parts of a tiger, including the whiskers, fat, liver and penis, are prized as aphrodisiacs in some Asian countries. Despite these products being banned in China in 1993, some illegal trade still continues. The tiger's fate also hangs in the balance.

In ancient Egypt, crocodile penis was considered to be an aphrodisiac.

CHAN SU (Toad Skin)
This is a topical drug made from the skin of a Chinese toad, one originally designed as an anaesthetic. The skin contains certain cardiac steroids which seem to have helped generate Chan Su's reputation as an aphrodisiac, however if ingested these steroids can prove fatal. The skin emerged in the early 90s as an aphrodisiac in the US, sold under the names "Rock Hard" and "Stone", and at least four people died from using it.

MANDRAKE ROOT
This is considered to be one of the oldest aphrodisiacs. This plant is a member of the potato family, and contains alkaloids which can have a soporific effect - and can be lethal in larger doses. The plant's roots can sometimes resemble genitalia, hence the belief that it would improve sex, or could cure sterility. The Old Testament also mentions mandrake in Genesis.

LOVE SPELLS AND LOVE MAGIC
All around the world, various cultures have had their own superstitions and theories regarding aphrodisiacal spells and magic. A Cuban spell, imported when slaves were sent there from West Africa, requires a hamburger to be made which is then soaked in sweat or menstrual blood, and then the meat is fed to the object of desire. A Scottish spell proposed a similar method; the lover had to draw blood from their ring finger, draw a circle of it on a wafer, eat half, and then contrive to feed the other half to their intended "victim". Even modern witchcraft has its own versions of spells and love magick, many of which may well have psychological effects, if only on those casting the spell.

HERBS AND DRUGS
YOHINBE
Yohimbe herb originates in West Africa, and comes from the bark of the Corynanthe Yohimbe tree. The tribes of that area had used it for many years as an aphrodisiac, and now Western cultures have started to make use of it. Proponents say the herb increases blood flow to the penis, as well as reducing depression and increasing mental alertness. The active ingredient yohimbine hydrochloride has been approved by the FDA for the treatment of impotence, however clinical studies have produced mixed results. The American Urological Association conducted trials and concluded that yohimbine works better than a placebo, while other studies have found that the drug had only a psychosomatic effect. In Germany, yohimbe has been declared an unsafe product and is unavailable. Elsewhere, you can buy yohimbe bark in health food shops, as well as extracts and powders which may contain less of the active ingredient. The bark can cause high blood pressure among other side effects, and care should be taken when using it.

L-ARGININE (and Ginkgo Bilboa)
This is an amino acid that was originally produced in the 70s as a growth hormone enhancer. It has since proved its worth in a completely different area. The drug opens arteries and improves blood flow, which can speed up muscle repair. It also can improve erectile function. Double blind, placebo controlled studies on men showed that arginine provided a better response than the placebo when treating erection problems. In women, L-Arginine combined with Ginkgo Bilboa had the effect of improved clitorial sensation, increased frequency of orgasm and greater satisfaction all around. Arginine can be found at health food shops, and there are also a number of topically applied products available such as Viacreme that have been designed specifically for improving libido in women.

HORNY GOAT WEED (Epimedium)
An ancient Chinese legend held that a goat herder noticed his flock had suddenly become very sexually active after feeding on a patch of weed. So it is that Horny Goat Weed has long been considered as an aphrodisiac by the Chinese, although mainly as a treatment for male erectile dysfunction. At present there are a few horny goat weed treatments which have been designed for women, although these rely on a combination of herbs. Not many serious clinical trials have been done to test whether this herb actually works, however some minor trials have returned positive results.

GINSENG
The herb panax ginseng is another traditional Chinese aphrodisiac, which again is supposed to improve erectile function. It's made from the ground root of the Ginseng plant and is also used to treat fatigue and strengthen the immune system, among other things. At least one controlled study of Korean red ginseng has suggested that it may well improve men's erections, however it does not appear to effect testosterone or estrogen levels at all. Ginseng is available in health shops. It may cause diarrhoea in some people.

OTHER HERBS
A large variety of different herbs and drugs have been suggested over time as aphrodisiacs. Among these are wild oats, damiana and burra gokhru. Wild or green oats (avena sativa) is a botanical extract that apparently stimulates testosterone which in turn stimulates the sex centres of the brain. Wild oats were used at least 200 years ago as an aphrodisiac in Germany. Damiana is a Mexican plant whose leaves have long been considered to improve the sex life. It's also an ingredient in Damiana herbal liquor which comes in a bottle shaped like a pregnant woman. Scientists have hypothesised that the leaf mildly irritates the urinary tract which may increase sexual desire. Burra gokhru is a seed extract from India, also known as Puncture Vine. It is often used in bodybuilding supplements because it supposedly increases testosterone production. While some positive studies have been done on each of these herbs, no properly controlled scientific tests have been performed.

APHRODISIAC FOODS
CHOCOLATE
Not only does chocolate taste divine, it is also one of the few foods described as an aphrodisiac that actually lives up to its reputation. In 1996 researchers proved that chocolate contains phenylethylamine (PEA) which is a natural form of amphetamine, and a natural antidepressant. When one is in love or lust, the blood contains high levels of PEA which produced naturally by the body. The "high" that comes with being in love is enhanced by PEA. There is also more PEA in the central nervous system during orgasm than at any other time. So, chocolate offers an alternative source of PEA that may well make it the perfect aphrodisiac. Some critics have stated that the PEA in chocolate is metabolised too quickly to make any real difference, but admit that some individuals may be more susceptible than others.

Chocolate also contains anandamide, a natural cannabinoid that is produced by the brain, and helps to release endorphins, the body's own opiate which creates a warm inner glow and reduces pain. Caffeine is also present, if only in small amounts. One study has shown caffeine may also have an aphrodisiac affect - it turns out coffee drinkers were more sexually active than those who abstained.

On top of all this is the long association of giving chocolates as a romantic gift, combined with the sensual experience that comes with eating it. No doubt about it, chocolate and sex were designed for each other.

OYSTERS
It is mainly due to the shape of oysters that these shellfish have long been considered an aphrodisiac; they tend to resemble the inner labia at times. Until recently, their effectiveness as an aphrodisiac was dismissed as mere superstition, however new research reveals there may be some truth to this idea. Nutritionists have pointed out that oysters are very rich in the trace element zinc, a mineral that is often low in processed foods. Men who are deficient in zinc often suffer erectile dysfunction, prostate problems and loss of libido. So a few good meals of oysters may well put some zing into the love life after all.

HONEY
Honey is mentioned in both the Kama Sutra and The Perfumed Garden as an aphrodisiac, and it's hard to deny that honey is a very sexy food. It's long been associated with sex and love - hence the term "honeymoon", which was when a newly married couple secluded themselves until the next new moon, and fed each other honeyed delicacies. On a more scientific level, honey is mainly good for offering easy-to-digest sugars that produce energy. If you have high energy, you're going to have better sex. Honey also has anti-biotic effects which can boost the immune system, so you can feel better and thus more inclined towards sex. One of the real attractions is honey's sensuousness - it sweet, it's languid, it's sticky. Like chocolate, it's a food that requires you to feel while you're eating it.

OTHER FOODS
There is a seriously large list of foods that have at one time or another been labelled as aphrodisiacs. Mostly this has been because of the way the food looks, the way that you eat it, or the effect it has on the body. Phallic foods like bananas and asparagus, and vulval foods like figs and oysters, became famous because of their shape. Foods such as mango, strawberries and pineapple are very sexy to eat - there's juice to dribble, soft flesh to suck and pleasant tastes to savour. Food additives such as chilli, garlic and ginger have developed an aphrodisiac reputation because they have "warming" and mildly stimulating effects. While no official proof exists that these foods have a major effect, they still offer a chance to explore sensuality, and of course offer nutrition to help keep up energy levels (which you'll need if you're having a lot of sex).

ALCOHOL AND DRUGS

We all know that alcohol can produce an aphrodisiac effect, if only by reducing inhibitions - the so-called "beer goggles effect". Wine and champagne have the added benefit of a romantic reputation, and are sensual experiences in themselves. It goes without saying that consuming more than a couple of drinks can have a negative effect on performance. Drugs such as marijuana have a similar effect in small doses, although the reduced blood flow that occurs when smoking could make attaining erection a little more difficult. Ecstasy (MDMA) encourages serotonin production, meaning the user experiences a feeling of love and wellbeing, which then translates into a desire for sex. Scientists currently believe that MDMA drastically depletes the brain's store of serotonin levels, so the high of ecstasy is replaced by depression the next day, along with unknown long term side effects. Harder drugs such as cocaine and heroin can also stimulate desire, however the health and legal risks involved certainly outweigh any positive effect.

You should of course enjoy alcohol in moderation, and avoid illegal drugs.

PHEREMONES

Pheromones are airborne chemicals produced by the body, producing a smell designed to attract the opposite sex. In 1998 researchers proved that humans do react to pheromones when women's ovulation was found to be effected by them. They also play a role in synchronising menstrual cycles when women live in the same house, and may well be a factor in our love lives. While pheromones cannot be detected consciously, scientists believe that nerve centres in the brain pick them up and act on them. More research needs to be done to discover exactly how these undetectable scents actually work. At present there are a number of commercial products that promise instant attraction via the pheromones in the jar, however using these involves trusting that the scentless active ingredients are actually there in the first place.

OTHER APHRODISIACS

There are plenty of other substances that claim to be aphrodisiacs. Some, such as Spanish Fly Pills available at sex shops, are simply harmless novelty items. Others such as herbal products may well be harmful and have not been tested scientifically.

Viagra, of course, is probably the only "real" aphrodisiac we have at present, because it does effectively treat erectile dysfunction and it is approved by the medical industry. And the current search for "female Viagra" proves just how much humanity still wants a magical product to increase desire. Whether this drug can actually be produced and overcome the vagaries of female sexual psychology is yet to be seen. Perhaps the ultimate aphrodisiac will remain as elusive as it has for millennia.

* Love Potion Number Nine, written by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller, recorded by The Searchers